Everything about Richard Lewontin totally explained
Richard Charles "Dick" Lewontin (born
March 29,
1929) is an
American evolutionary biologist,
geneticist and
social commentator. A leader in developing the
mathematical basis of
population genetics and evolutionary theory, he pioneered the notion of using techniques from
molecular biology such as
gel electrophoresis to apply to questions of
genetic variation and evolution.
In a pair of
1966 papers co-authored with
J.L. Hubby in the journal
Genetics, Lewontin helped set the stage for the modern field of
molecular evolution.
In
1979, he and
Stephen Jay Gould introduced the term "
spandrel" to
evolutionary theory. A spandrel is something that evolves as the necessary result of another trait, which in turn evolved under selection pressure. More generally, he opposed what he saw as the
genetic determinism of
sociobiology and
evolutionary psychology.
Biography
Lewontin was born in
New York City to Jewish parents. Lewontin attended Forest Hills High School and the
École Libre des Hautes Études in New York. In 1951, he obtained a bachelors degree in biology from
Harvard University. In 1952, he received a master's degree in mathematical statistics followed by a doctorate in zoology in 1954, both from
Columbia University where he was a student of
Theodosius Dobzhansky. Lewontin held faculty positions at
North Carolina State University, the
University of Rochester, and the
University of Chicago. In 1973 Lewontin served as Alexander Agassiz Professor of Zoology and Professor of Biology at Harvard until 1998, and as of 2003 was the Alexander Agassiz Research Professor at Harvard. Lewontin has worked with and had great influence on many philosophers of biology, including
William C. Wimsatt,
Elliott Sober,
Philip Kitcher,
Elisabeth Lloyd,
Peter Godfrey-Smith, and
Robert Brandon, often inviting them to work in his lab.
Work in population genetics
Lewontin has worked in both theoretical and experimental population genetics. A hallmark of his work has been an interest in new technology. He was the first person to do a computer simulation of the behavior of a single locus (previous simulation work having been of models with multiple loci). In 1960 he and Ken-Ichi Kojima were the first population geneticists to give the equations for change of haplotype frequencies with interacting natural selection at two loci. This set off a wave of theoretical work on two-locus selection in the 1960s and 1970s. Their paper gave a theoretical derivation of the equilibria expected, and also investigated the dynamics of the model by computer iteration. Lewontin later introduced the D' measure of
linkage disequilibrium. (An achievement that he'd be less happy to claim is that he introduced the name "linkage disequilibrium" itself, one about which many population geneticists have been unenthusiastic).
In 1966, he and Jack Hubby published a paper that revolutionized population genetics. They used protein gel electrophoresis to survey dozens of loci in
Drosophila pseudoobscura, and reported that a large fraction of the loci were polymorphic, and that at the average locus there was about a 15% chance that the individual was heterozygous. (Harry Harris reported similar results for humans at about the same time). Previous work with gel electrophoresis had been reports of variation in single loci and didn't give any sense of how common variation was.
Lewontin and Hubby's paper also discussed the possible explanation of the high levels of variability by either balancing selection or neutral mutation. Although they didn't commit themselves to advocating neutrality, this was the first clear statement of the
neutral theory for levels of variability within species. Lewontin and Hubby's paper had great impact -- the discovery of high levels of molecular variability gave population geneticists ample material to work on, and gave them access to variation at single loci. The possible theoretical explanations of this rampant polymorphism became the focus of most population genetics work thereafter. Martin Kreitman was later to do a pioneering survey of population-level variability in DNA sequences while a Ph.D. student in Lewontin's lab.
Work on human genetic diversity
In a landmark paper, Richard Lewontin identified that most of the variation (80-85%) within human populations is found within local geographic groups and differences attributable to traditional "
race" groups are a minor part of human genetic variability (1-15%). In a 2003 paper,
A.W.F. Edwards criticized Lewontin's conclusion, that because the probability of racial misclassification of an individual based on variation in a single genetic locus is approximately 30%, race is an invalid taxonomic construct, terming it
Lewontin's_Fallacy.
Critique of orthodox evolutionary biology
In 1975, when E. O. Wilson's book Sociobiology proposed evolutionary explanations for human social behaviors, Lewontin, Stephen Jay Gould, et al, wrote
Against 'Sociobiology', attacking it.
Lewontin and his late
Harvard colleague
Stephen Jay Gould introduced the evolutionary term
spandrel, inspired by the
architectural term "
spandrel" and transferred the word to an evolutionary context, in an influential 1979 paper "The spandrels of
San Marco and the
Panglossian
paradigm: a critique of the adaptationist programme", using it for a feature of an
organism that exists as a necessary consequence of other features and isn't selected for directly. The relative frequency of spandrels, so defined, versus adaptive features in nature, remains a controversial topic in evolutionary biology.
Lewontin was an early proponent of a
hierarchy of levels of selection in his article "The Units of Selection". He has been a major influence on philosophers of biology, notably
William C. Wimsatt, who taught with Lewontin and Richard Levins at the University of Chicago,
Robert Brandon and Elisabeth Lloyd, who studied with Lewontin as graduate students,
Philip Kitcher, and
Elliot Sober. Lewontin briefly argued for the historical nature of biological causality in "Is Nature Probable or Capricious?"
In "Organism and Environment" in Scientia, and in more popular form in the last chapter of
Biology as Ideology, Lewontin argued that while traditional
Darwinism has portrayed the organism as passive recipient of environmental influences, a correct understanding should emphasize the organism as an active constructer of its own environment.
Niches are not pre-formed, empty receptacles into which organisms are inserted, but are defined and created by organisms. The organism-environment relationship is reciprocal and
dialectical.
M.W. Feldman,
K.N. Laland, and
F.J. Odling-Smee among others have developed Lewontin's conception in more detailed models.
Lewontin has long been a critic of traditional
neo-Darwinian approaches to
adaptation. In his article "Adaptation" in the Italian
Encyclopedia Einaudi, and in a toned-down version in
Scientific American, he emphasized the need to give an engineering characterization of adaptation separate from measurement of number of offspring, rather than simply assuming organs or organisms are at adaptive optima. Lewontin has claimed that his more general, technical criticism of
adaptationism grew out of his recognition that the fallacies of
sociobiology reflect fundamentally flawed assumptions of adaptiveness of all traits in much of the
modern evolutionary synthesis.
Sociobiology and evolutionary psychology
Along with others, such as Gould, Lewontin has been a persistent critic of some themes in
neo-Darwinism; specifically, he's criticised
sociobiologists and
evolutionary psychologists such as
Edward O. Wilson and
Richard Dawkins, who attempt to explain animal behaviour and social structures in terms of evolutionary advantage or strategy—this has been controversial when applied to humans, because some see it as
genetic determinism. Lewontin, in his writing, calls for what he considers a more nuanced view of evolution, which he claims requires a more careful understanding of the context of the whole organism as well as the environment.
Such concerns about what he views as the oversimplification of genetics led Lewontin to be a frequent commentator in debates, and he's lectured widely to promote his views on evolutionary biology and science. In books such as
Not in Our Genes (co-authored with
Steven Rose and
Leon J. Kamin) and numerous articles, Lewontin has questioned much of the claimed
heritability of human behavioral traits such as
intelligence as measured by
IQ tests, promoted by books such as
The Bell Curve.
Lewontin has been criticized by some academics for a rejection of
sociobiology for non-scientific reasons. Some credit this rejection to political beliefs (Wilson 1995). Lewontin has at times identified himself as
Marxist or at least left-leaning (Levins and Lewontin 1985). Others (Kitcher 1985) have countered that Lewontin's criticisms of sociobiology are genuine scientific concerns about the discipline and claim that attacking Lewontin's motives amount to an
ad hominem argument. Researchers such as
Steven Pinker (2002) address Lewontin's concerns in a scientific context, but nevertheless believe that Lewontin is attacking a
straw man version of sociobiology (or its more modern incarnation as
evolutionary psychology) and therefore claim that his arguments miss the target.
Agribusiness
Lewontin has also written on the economics of
agribusiness. He has contended that
hybrid corn was developed and propagated not because of its superior quality, but because it allowed agribusiness corporations to force farmers to buy new seed each year rather than plant seed produced by their previous crop of corn. Lewontin testified in an unsuccessful suit in California challenging the state's financing of research to develop automatic tomato pickers, favoring the profits of agribusiness over the employment of farm workers.
Recognition
Bibliography
"The Apportionment of Human Diversity," Evolutionary Biology, vol. 6 (1972) pp. 391-398.
"Adattamento," Enciclopedia Einnaudi, (1977) vol. 1, 198-214.
"Adaptation," Scientific American, vol. 239, (1978) 212-228.
"The Organism as Subject and Object of Evolution," Scientia vol. 188 (1983) 65-82.
Not in Our Genes: Biology, Ideology and Human Nature (with Steven Rose and Leon J. Kamin) (1984) ISBN 0-394-72888-2
The Dialectical Biologist (with Richard Levins), Harvard University Press (1985) ISBN 0-674-20283-X
Biology as Ideology: The Doctrine of DNA (1991) ISBN 0-06-097519-9
The Triple Helix: Gene, Organism, and Environment, Harvard University Press (2000) ISBN 0-674-00159-1
It Ain't Necessarily So: The Dream of the Human Genome and Other Illusions, New York Review of Books (2000)
Biology Under The Influence: Dialectical Essays on the Coevolution of Nature and Society (with Richard Levins), (2007)
Footnotes
Further Information
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